Giải đề Cambridge IELTS 19, Test 4, Reading Passage 3: The Unselfish Gene

The Unselfish Gene

A psychologist gives his view on how humans became self-centred

There has long been a general assumption that human beings are essentially selfish. We’re apparently ruthless, with strong impulses to compete against each other for resources and to accumulate power and possessions. If we are kind to one another, it’s usually because we have ulterior motives. If we are good, it’s only because we have managed to control and transcend our innate selfishness and brutality (Q27).

This bleak view of human nature is closely associated with the science writer Richard Dawkins, whose 1976 book The Selfish Gene became popular because it fitted so well with — and helped to justify — the competitive and individualistic ethos that was so prevalent in late 20th-century societies. Like many others, Dawkins justifies his views with reference to the field of evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology theorises that present-day human traits developed in prehistoric times, during what is termed the ‘environment of evolutionary adaptedness'(Q28).

Prehistory is usually seen as a period of intense competition, when life was such a brutal battle that only those with traits such as selfishness, aggression and ruthlessness survived. And because survival depended on access to resources — such as rivers, forests and animals — there was bound to be conflict between rival groups, which led to the development of traits such as racism and warfare. This seems logical. But, in fact, the assumption on which this all rests — that prehistoric life was a desperate struggle for survival — is false.

It’s important to remember that in the prehistoric era, the world was very sparsely populated. According to some estimates, around 15,000 years ago, the population of Europe was only 29,000, and the population of the whole world was less than half a million. Humans at that time were hunter-gatherers: people who lived by hunting wild animals and collecting wild plants. With such small population densities, it seems unlikely that prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups had to compete against each other for resources or had any need to develop ruthlessness and competitiveness, or to go to war(Q29).

There is significant evidence to back this notion from contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, who live in the same way as prehistoric humans did. As the anthropologist Bruce Knauft has remarked, hunter-gatherers are characterised by ‘extreme political and sexual egalitarianism’. Knauft has observed that individuals in such groups don’t accumulate property or possessions and have an ethical obligation to share everything. They also have methods of preserving egalitarianism (Q31) by ensuring that disparities of status (Q32) don’t arise (Q30).

The ‘Kung people of southern Africa, for example, swap arrows before going hunting and when an animal is killed, the acclaim does not go to the person who fired the arrow, but to the person the arrow belongs to(Q33). And if a person becomes too domineering, the other members of the group ostracise them, exiling the offender from society(Q34). Typically in such groups, men do not dictate what women do. Women in hunter-gatherer groups worldwide often benefit from a high level of autonomy, being able to select their own marriage partners, decide what work they do and work whenever they choose to. And if a marriage breaks down, they have custody rights over their children (Q35).

Many anthropologists believe that societies such as the ‘Kung were normal until a few thousand years ago, when population growth led to the development of agriculture and a settled lifestyle(Q36). In view of the above, there seems little reason to assume that traits such as racism, warfare and male domination should have been selected by evolution — as they would have been of little benefit in the prehistoric era. Individuals who behaved selfishly and ruthlessly would be less likely to survive, since they would have been ostracised from their groups(Q37).

It makes more sense, then, to see traits such as cooperation, egalitarianism, altruism and peacefulness as innate characteristics of human beings(Q38). These were the traits that were prevalent in human life for tens of thousands of years. So presumably these traits are still strong in us now(Q39).

But if prehistoric life wasn’t really as brutal as has often been assumed, why do modern humans behave so selfishly and ruthlessly? Perhaps these negative traits should be seen as a later development, the result of environmental and psychological factors. Research has shown repeatedly that when the natural habitats of primates such as apes and gorillas are disrupted, they tend to become more violent and hierarchical(Q40).

So, it could well be that the same thing has happened to us. I believe that the end of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle and the advent of farming was connected to a psychological change that occurred in some groups of people. There was a new sense of individuality and separateness, which led to a new selfishness, and ultimately to hierarchical societies, patriarchy and warfare. At any rate, these negative traits appear to have developed so recently that it doesn’t seem feasible to explain them in adaptive or evolutionary terms.

GIẢI THÍCH CHI TIẾT ĐỀ

Questions 27-30

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write the correct letter in boxes 27—30 on your answer sheet.

27     What is the writer doing in the first paragraph?

A setting out two opposing views about human nature

B justifying his opinion about our tendency to be greedy

C describing a commonly held belief about people’s behaviour

D explaining why he thinks that humans act in a selfish manner

Dẫn chứng trong bài: There has long been a general assumption that human beings are essentially selfish. We’re apparently ruthless, with strong impulses to compete against each other for resources and to accumulate power and possessions. If we are kind to one another, it’s usually because we have ulterior motives…

Giải thích: Người viết muốn nói về một niềm tin cố hữu cho rằng con người là giống loài ích kỷ.

28     What point is made about Richard Dawkins‘ book The Selfish Gene?

A  Its appeal lay in the radical nature of its ideas.

B  Its success was due to the scientific support it offered.

C  It presented a view that was in line with the attitudes of its time.

D It took an innovative approach to the analysis of human psychology.

Dẫn chứng trong bài: This bleak view of human nature is closely associated with the science writer Richard Dawkins, whose 1976 book The Selfish Gene became popular because it fitted so well with — and helped to justify — the competitive and individualistic ethos that was so prevalent in late 20th-century societies.

Giải thích: Góc nhìn của Richard Dawkins về bản chất ích kỷ của con người trong cuốn ‘The Selfish Gene’ là rất hợp với thời đại khi cuốn sách được ra đời(1976). Đó là những năm của thế kỷ 20, thế kỷ mà tính cạnh tranh cũng như tư tưởng cá nhân hoá đang rất thịnh hành.

29     What does the writer suggest about the prehistoric era in the fourth paragraph?

A  Societies were more complex than many people believe.

B  Supplies of natural resources were probably relatively plentiful.

C  Most estimates about population sizes are likely to be inaccurate.

D Humans moved across continents more than was previously thought.

Dẫn chứng trong bài: It’s important to remember that in the prehistoric era, the world was very sparsely populated. According to some estimates, around 15,000 years ago, the population of Europe was only 29,000, and the population of the whole world was less than half a million. Humans at that time were hunter-gatherers: people who lived by hunting wild animals and collecting wild plants. With such small population densities, it seems unlikely that prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups had to compete against each other for resources or had any need to develop ruthlessness and competitiveness, or to go to war.

Giải thích: Thông tin đoạn 4 muốn chỉ ra rằng do dân số loài người ở thời tiền sử là rất ít (cả thế giới chỉ có khoảng nửa triệu người vào 15000 năm trước) suy ra mật độ dân số thấp, mà hồi đó con người lại săn bắn & hái lượm, nên việc cạnh tranh tài nguyên là khó xảy ra

30     The writer refers to Bruce Knauft’s work as support for the idea that

A  selfishness is a relatively recent development in human societies.

B  only people in isolated communities can live in an unselfish manner.

C  very few lifestyles have survived unchanged since prehistoric times.

D hunter-gatherer cultures worldwide are declining in number.

Dẫn chứng trong bài: In view of the above, there seems little reason to assume that traits such as racism, warfare and male domination should have been selected by evolution — as they would have been of little benefit in the prehistoric era. Individuals who behaved selfishly and ruthlessly would be less likely to survive, since they would have been ostracised from their groups.

Giải thích: Người viết đề cập về công trình của Bruce Knauft là để chứng minh rằng con người ở thời săn bắn hái lượm cũng không hề tỏ ra ích kỷ, mà ngược lại họ lại hướng tới việc chia sẻ công bằng. Ý chỉ ‘tính ích kỷ” thực ra là một đức tính gần đây mới xuất hiện trong xã hội loài người.

Questions 31-35

Complete the summary below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 31—35 on your answer sheet.

Contemporary hunter-gatherer societies

Bruce Knauft’s research shows that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies tend to exhibit a high level of 31.____egalitarianism____ in all areas of life. In these cultures, distributing resources fairly among all members is a moral obligation. These societies also employ strategies to prevent differences in 32.____status____ occurring: for example, the !Kung follow a custom whereby the credit for one person’s success at 33.____hunting____ is given to another member of the group. Individuals who behave in a 34.____domineering_____ manner are punished by being excluded from the group, and women have a considerable amount of 35.____autonomy____ in choices regarding work and marriage.

Q31: Bruce Knauft’s research shows that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies tend to exhibit a high level of 31.____egalitarianism____ in all areas of life

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: There is significant evidence to back this notion from contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, who live in the same way as prehistoric humans did.As the anthropologist Bruce Knauft has remarked, hunter-gatherers are characterised by ‘extreme political and sexual egalitarianism’. Knauft has observed that individuals in such groups don’t accumulate property or possessions and have an ethical obligation to share everything. They also have methods of preserving egalitarianism by ensuring that disparities of status don’t arise.

Giải thích: Egalitarianism có nghĩa là chủ nghĩa bình đẳng. Từ thời tiền sử, các nhóm người săn bắn hái lượm đã thể hiện sự bình đẳng & công bằng ở mọi khía cạnh trong cuộc sống.

Q32: These societies also employ strategies to prevent differences in 32.____status____ occurring:

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: They also have methods of preserving egalitarianism by ensuring that disparities of status don’t arise.

Giải thích: Họ cũng có những phương pháp để bảo vệ chủ nghĩa bình đẳng thông qua vịêc đảm bảo không có sự chênh lệch giữa trong địa vị xã hội.

Q33: for example, the Kung follow a custom whereby the credit for one person’s success at 33.____hunting____ is given to another member of the group

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: The Kung people of southern Africa, for example, swap arrows before going hunting and when an animal is killed, the acclaim does not go to the person who fired the arrow, but to the person the arrow belongs to.

Giải thích: Để thể hiện sự bình đẳng thì người Kung có 1 tập tục là đổi cung tên cho người đi săn cùng mình. Khi săn được thú, công săn sẽ thuộc về người đổi cung tên chứ không phải người bắn.

Q34: Individuals who behave in a 34.____domineering_____ manner are punished by being excluded from the group

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: And if a person becomes too domineering, the other members of the group ostracise them, exiling the offender from society.

Giải thích: Nếu có 1 thành viên trong nhóm trở nên áp bức, hắn sẽ bị tẩy chay/khai trừ khỏi xã hội.

Q35: women have a considerable amount of 35.____autonomy____ in choices regarding work and marriage.

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: Typically in such groups, men do not dictate what women do. Women in hunter-gatherer groups worldwide often benefit from a high level of autonomy, being able to select their own marriage partners, decide what work they do and work whenever they choose to. And if a marriage breaks down, they have custody rights over their children.

Giải thích: Phụ nữ có quyền tự do đáng kể khi được tự chọn bạn đời hay loại công việc muốn làm & thời điểm muốn làm việc.

Questions 36-40

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3?

In boxes 36—40 on your answer sheet, write

YES               if the statement agrees with lhe views of the writer

NO                 if the statement contradicts the views of the writer

NOT GIVEN  if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

36. NOT GIVEN Some anthropologists are mistaken about the point when the number of societies such as the !Kung began to decline.

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: Many anthropologists believe that societies such as the Kung were normal until a few thousand years ago, when population growth led to the development of agriculture and a settled lifestyle.

Giải thích: Không có thông tin liên quan đến việc các nhà khoa học đã nhầm về việc số lượng xã hội như Kung giảm.

37. NO Humans who developed warlike traits in prehistory would have had an advantage over those who did not.

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: In view of the above, there seems little reason to assume that traits such as racism, warfare and male domination should have been selected by evolution — as they would have been of little benefit in the prehistoric era. Individuals who behaved selfishly and ruthlessly would be less likely to survive, since they would have been ostracised from their groups.

Giải thích: Đức tính hiếu chiến sẽ không đem lại lợi ích cho những người sở hữu nó, kể cả là thời tiền sử. Những người ích kỷ & tàn nhẫn sẽ bị khai trừ khỏi nhó. Vậy đáp án là NO.

38. YES Being peaceful and cooperative is a natural way for people to behave.

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: It makes more sense, then, to see traits such as cooperation, egalitarianism, altruism and peacefulness as innate characteristics of human beings.

Giải thích: Hành động 1 cách hoà bình & hợp tác mới là bản chất của con người.

39. NOT GIVEN Negative traits are more apparent in some modern cultures than in others.

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: These were the traits that were prevalent in human life for tens of thousands of years. So presumably these traits are still strong in us now.

Giải thích: Bài đọc không bàn luận về việc một vài đức tính tiêu cực thì thịnh hành hơn ở 1 vài nền văn hoá hiện đại so với các nền văn hoá khác.

40. NO Animal research has failed to reveal a link between changes in the environment and the emergence of aggressive tendencies.

Từ đồng nghĩa trong bài: Research has shown repeatedly that when the natural habitats of primates such as apes and gorillas are disrupted, they tend to become more violent and hierarchical.

Giải thích: Câu hỏi cho rằng không có mối liên hệ giữa sự thay đổi về môi trường và xu hướng gây hấn. Tuy nhiên, bài đọc có nhắc về việc các nghiên cứu đã liên tục chứng minh các loài linh trưởng trở nên bạo lực & phân bậc hơn khi môi trường sống của chúng bị đảo lộn.

IELTSITY hy vọng rằng bài viết này đã giúp bạn hiểu rõ và hoàn thành tốt bài đọc The Unselfish Gene (CAMBRIDGE 19 – TEST 4 – PASSAGE 3). Đừng quên chia sẻ cho bạn bè để cùng luyện tập nhé! Chúc các bạn học tốt!

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